String to Tree Models
The motivation to use linguistic syntax trees on the target side is to support grammatical coherent output and ground restructuring in syntactic properties.
String To Tree is the main subject of 18 publications. 12 are discussed here.
Publications
String to tree models differ by the type of rules and linguistic annotation.
Michel Galley and Mark Hopkins and Kevin Knight and Daniel Marcu (2004):
What's in a translation rule?, Proceedings of the Joint Conference on Human Language Technologies and the Annual Meeting of the North American Chapter of the Association of Computational Linguistics (HLT-NAACL)
@Inproceedings{Galley:2004,
author = {Michel Galley and Mark Hopkins and Kevin Knight and Daniel Marcu},
title = {What's in a translation rule?},
url = {
http://www.aclweb.org/anthology/N04-1035.pdf},
booktitle = {Proceedings of the Joint Conference on Human Language Technologies and the Annual Meeting of the North American Chapter of the Association of Computational Linguistics (HLT-NAACL)},
year = 2004
}
build translation rules that map input phrases to output tree fragments. Contextually richer rules and learning rule probabilities with the EM algorithm may lead to better performance
Galley, Michel and Graehl, Jonathan and Knight, Kevin and Marcu, Daniel and DeNeefe, Steve and Wang, Wei and Thayer, Ignacio (2006):
Scalable Inference and Training of Context-Rich Syntactic Translation Models, Proceedings of the 21st International Conference on Computational Linguistics and 44th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics
@InProceedings{galley-EtAl:2006:COLACL,
author = {Galley, Michel and Graehl, Jonathan and Knight, Kevin and Marcu, Daniel and DeNeefe, Steve and Wang, Wei and Thayer, Ignacio},
title = {Scalable Inference and Training of Context-Rich Syntactic Translation Models},
booktitle = {Proceedings of the 21st International Conference on Computational Linguistics and 44th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics},
month = {July},
address = {Sydney, Australia},
publisher = {Association for Computational Linguistics},
pages = {961--968},
url = {
http://www.aclweb.org/anthology/P/P06/P06-1121},
year = 2006
}
(Galley et al., 2006). But also adjusting the parse trees to be able to extract rules for all lexical matches may be important — which requires the introduction of additional nonterminal symbols
Marcu, Daniel and Wang, Wei and Echihabi, Abdessamad and Knight, Kevin (2006):
SPMT: Statistical Machine Translation with Syntactified Target Language Phrases, Proceedings of the 2006 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing
@InProceedings{marcu-EtAl:2006:EMNLP,
author = {Marcu, Daniel and Wang, Wei and Echihabi, Abdessamad and Knight, Kevin},
title = {SPMT: Statistical Machine Translation with Syntactified Target Language Phrases},
booktitle = {Proceedings of the 2006 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing},
month = {July},
address = {Sydney, Australia},
publisher = {Association for Computational Linguistics},
pages = {44--52},
url = {
http://www.aclweb.org/anthology/W/W06/W06-1606},
year = 2006
}
(Marcu et al., 2006) or rules with multiple head nodes
Liu, Yang and Huang, Yun and Liu, Qun and Lin, Shouxun (2007):
Forest-to-String Statistical Translation Rules, Proceedings of the 45th Annual Meeting of the Association of Computational Linguistics
@InProceedings{liu-EtAl:2007:ACLMain,
author = {Liu, Yang and Huang, Yun and Liu, Qun and Lin, Shouxun},
title = {Forest-to-String Statistical Translation Rules},
booktitle = {Proceedings of the 45th Annual Meeting of the Association of Computational Linguistics},
month = {June},
address = {Prague, Czech Republic},
publisher = {Association for Computational Linguistics},
pages = {704--711},
url = {
http://www.aclweb.org/anthology/P/P07/P07-1089},
year = 2007
}
(Liu et al., 2007). Instead of using standard Penn treebank labels for nonterminals, relabeling the constituents may lead to the acquisiton of better rules
Huang, Bryant and Knight, Kevin (2006):
Relabeling Syntax Trees to Improve Syntax-Based Machine Translation Quality, Proceedings of the Human Language Technology Conference of the NAACL, Main Conference
@InProceedings{huang-knight:2006:HLT-NAACL06-Main,
author = {Huang, Bryant and Knight, Kevin},
title = {Relabeling Syntax Trees to Improve Syntax-Based Machine Translation Quality},
booktitle = {Proceedings of the Human Language Technology Conference of the NAACL, Main Conference},
month = {June},
address = {New York City, USA},
publisher = {Association for Computational Linguistics},
pages = {240--247},
url = {
http://www.aclweb.org/anthology/N/N06/N06-1031},
year = 2006
}
(Huang and Knight, 2006). Since syntactic structure prohibits some phrase pairs that may be learned as syntactic translation rules, leading to less coverage, this may be alleviated by adjusting the rule extraction algorithm
DeNeefe, Steve and Knight, Kevin and Wang, Wei and Marcu, Daniel (2007):
What Can Syntax-Based MT Learn from Phrase-Based MT?, Proceedings of the 2007 Joint Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing and Computational Natural Language Learning (EMNLP-CoNLL)
@InProceedings{deneefe-EtAl:2007:EMNLP-CoNLL2007,
author = {DeNeefe, Steve and Knight, Kevin and Wang, Wei and Marcu, Daniel},
title = {What Can Syntax-Based {MT} Learn from Phrase-Based {MT}?},
booktitle = {Proceedings of the 2007 Joint Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing and Computational Natural Language Learning (EMNLP-CoNLL)},
pages = {755--763},
url = {
http://www.aclweb.org/anthology/D/D07/D07-1079},
year = 2007
}
(DeNeefe et al., 2007).
DeNeefe, Steve and Knight, Kevin and Chan, Hayward H. (2005):
Interactively Exploring a Machine Translation Model, Proceedings of the ACL Interactive Poster and Demonstration Sessions
@InProceedings{deneefe-knight-chan:2005:PosterDemo,
author = {DeNeefe, Steve and Knight, Kevin and Chan, Hayward H.},
title = {Interactively Exploring a Machine Translation Model},
booktitle = {Proceedings of the ACL Interactive Poster and Demonstration Sessions},
month = {June},
address = {Ann Arbor, Michigan},
publisher = {Association for Computational Linguistics},
pages = {97--100},
url = {
http://www.aclweb.org/anthology/P/P05/P05-3025},
year = 2005
}
DeNeefe et al. (2005) present an interactive tool to inspect the workings of such syntactic translation models.
Syntax-augmented models
Andreas Zollmann and Ashish Venugopal and Stephan Vogel and Alex Waibel (2006):
The CMU-UKA syntax augmented machine translation system for the IWSLT-06, Proc. of the International Workshop on Spoken Language Translation
@inproceedings{Zollmann:2006:IWSLT,
author = {Andreas Zollmann and Ashish Venugopal and Stephan Vogel and Alex Waibel},
title = {The {CMU-UKA} syntax augmented machine translation system for the {IWSLT}-06},
url = {
http://20.210-193-52.unknown.qala.com.sg/archive/iwslt\_06/papers/slt6\_138.pdf},
googlescholar = {13850127937679025231},
month = {November},
booktitle = {Proc. of the International Workshop on Spoken Language Translation},
address = {Kyoto, Japan},
year = 2006
}
(Zollmann et al., 2006) overcome the restricting of matching the range of rules to syntactic constituent boundaries by merging or otherwise adding constituent labels.
Zollmann, Andreas and Venugopal, Ashish (2006):
Syntax Augmented Machine Translation via Chart Parsing, Proceedings on the Workshop on Statistical Machine Translation
@InProceedings{zollmann-venugopal:2006:WMT,
author = {Zollmann, Andreas and Venugopal, Ashish},
title = {Syntax Augmented Machine Translation via Chart Parsing},
booktitle = {Proceedings on the Workshop on Statistical Machine Translation},
month = {June},
address = {New York City},
publisher = {Association for Computational Linguistics},
pages = {138--141},
url = {
http://www.aclweb.org/anthology/W/W06/W06-3119},
year = 2006
}
Zollmann and Venugopal (2006) describe an efficient decoding algorithm for this approach.
Hala Almaghout and Jie Jiang and Andy Way (2011):
CCG Contextual labels in Hierarchical Phrase-Based SMT, Proceedings of the 15th International Conference of the European Association for Machine Translation (EAMT)
@inproceedings{eamt11:Almaghout,
author = {Hala Almaghout and Jie Jiang and Andy Way},
title = {{CCG} Contextual labels in Hierarchical Phrase-Based {SMT}},
url = {
http://doras.dcu.ie/16402/1/CCG\_Contextual\_Labels\_in\_Hierarchical\_Phrase-Based\_SMT.pdf},
googlescholar = {17002414111537096555},
pages = {281--288},
booktitle = {Proceedings of the 15th International Conference of the European Association for Machine Translation (EAMT)},
location = {Leuven, Belgium},
editor = {Mikel L. Forcada and Heidi Depraetere and Vincent Vandeghinste},
year = 2011
}
Almaghout et al. (2011) use simplified CCG tags that specify only context but not the resulting category as syntactic labels in a string-to-tree model.
When translating into morphologically rich languages who exhibit an increased number of long distance agreement, it may be better to encode morphological properties not in the grammar but in distinct agreement constraints that are checked at the appropriate level in the tree
Williams, Philip and Koehn, Philipp (2011):
Agreement Constraints for Statistical Machine Translation into German, Proceedings of the Sixth Workshop on Statistical Machine Translation
@InProceedings{williams-koehn:2011:WMT,
author = {Williams, Philip and Koehn, Philipp},
title = {Agreement Constraints for Statistical Machine Translation into German},
booktitle = {Proceedings of the Sixth Workshop on Statistical Machine Translation},
month = {July},
address = {Edinburgh, Scotland},
publisher = {Association for Computational Linguistics},
pages = {217--226},
url = {
http://www.aclweb.org/anthology/W11-2126},
year = 2011
}
(Williams and Koehn, 2011).
Benchmarks
Discussion
Related Topics
New Publications
Braune, Fabienne and Seemann, Nina and Fraser, Alexander (2015):
Rule Selection with Soft Syntactic Features for String-to-Tree Statistical Machine Translation, Proceedings of the 2015 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing
@InProceedings{braune-seemann-fraser:2015:EMNLP,
author = {Braune, Fabienne and Seemann, Nina and Fraser, Alexander},
title = {Rule Selection with Soft Syntactic Features for String-to-Tree Statistical Machine Translation},
booktitle = {Proceedings of the 2015 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing},
month = {September},
address = {Lisbon, Portugal},
publisher = {Association for Computational Linguistics},
pages = {1095--1101},
url = {
http://aclweb.org/anthology/D15-1129},
year = 2015
}
Braune et al. (2015)
Sennrich, Rico and Haddow, Barry (2015):
A Joint Dependency Model of Morphological and Syntactic Structure for Statistical Machine Translation, Proceedings of the 2015 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing
@InProceedings{sennrich-haddow:2015:EMNLP,
author = {Sennrich, Rico and Haddow, Barry},
title = {A Joint Dependency Model of Morphological and Syntactic Structure for Statistical Machine Translation},
booktitle = {Proceedings of the 2015 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing},
month = {September},
address = {Lisbon, Portugal},
publisher = {Association for Computational Linguistics},
pages = {2081--2087},
url = {
http://aclweb.org/anthology/D15-1248},
year = 2015
}
Sennrich and Haddow (2015)
Seemann, Nina and Braune, Fabienne and Maletti, Andreas (2015):
String-to-Tree Multi Bottom-up Tree Transducers, Proceedings of the 53rd Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics and the 7th International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing (Volume 1: Long Papers)
@InProceedings{seemann-braune-maletti:2015:ACL-IJCNLP,
author = {Seemann, Nina and Braune, Fabienne and Maletti, Andreas},
title = {String-to-Tree Multi Bottom-up Tree Transducers},
booktitle = {Proceedings of the 53rd Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics and the 7th International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing (Volume 1: Long Papers)},
month = {July},
address = {Beijing, China},
publisher = {Association for Computational Linguistics},
pages = {815--824},
url = {
http://www.aclweb.org/anthology/P15-1079},
year = 2015
}
Seemann et al. (2015)
Hassan, Hany and Sima'an, Khalil and Way, Andy (2007):
Supertagged Phrase-Based Statistical Machine Translation, Proceedings of the 45th Annual Meeting of the Association of Computational Linguistics
mentioned in String To Tree and Syntactic Reranking@InProceedings{hassan-simaan-way:2007:ACLMain,
author = {Hassan, Hany and Sima'an, Khalil and Way, Andy},
title = {Supertagged Phrase-Based Statistical Machine Translation},
booktitle = {Proceedings of the 45th Annual Meeting of the Association of Computational Linguistics},
month = {June},
address = {Prague, Czech Republic},
publisher = {Association for Computational Linguistics},
pages = {288--295},
url = {
http://www.aclweb.org/anthology/P/P07/P07-1037},
year = 2007
}
Hassan et al. (2007)
Weese, Jonathan and Callison-Burch, Chris and Lopez, Adam (2012):
Using Categorial Grammar to Label Translation Rules, Proceedings of the Seventh Workshop on Statistical Machine Translation
@InProceedings{weese-callisonburch-lopez:2012:WMT,
author = {Weese, Jonathan and Callison-Burch, Chris and Lopez, Adam},
title = {Using Categorial Grammar to Label Translation Rules},
booktitle = {Proceedings of the Seventh Workshop on Statistical Machine Translation},
month = {June},
address = {Montreal, Canada},
publisher = {Association for Computational Linguistics},
pages = {268--277},
url = {
http://www.aclweb.org/anthology/W12-3132},
year = 2012
}
Weese et al. (2012)
Williams, Philip and Koehn, Philipp (2012):
GHKM Rule Extraction and Scope-3 Parsing in Moses, Proceedings of the Seventh Workshop on Statistical Machine Translation
@InProceedings{williams-koehn:2012:WMT,
author = {Williams, Philip and Koehn, Philipp},
title = {GHKM Rule Extraction and Scope-3 Parsing in Moses},
booktitle = {Proceedings of the Seventh Workshop on Statistical Machine Translation},
month = {June},
address = {Montreal, Canada},
publisher = {Association for Computational Linguistics},
pages = {434--440},
url = {
http://www.aclweb.org/anthology/W12-3155},
year = 2012
}
Williams and Koehn (2012)
DeNeefe, Steve and Knight, Kevin and Vogler, Heiko (2010):
A Decoder for Probabilistic Synchronous Tree Insertion Grammars, Proceedings of the 2010 Workshop on Applications of Tree Automata in Natural Language Processing
@InProceedings{deneefe-knight-vogler:2010:ATANLP,
author = {DeNeefe, Steve and Knight, Kevin and Vogler, Heiko},
title = {A Decoder for Probabilistic Synchronous Tree Insertion Grammars},
booktitle = {Proceedings of the 2010 Workshop on Applications of Tree Automata in Natural Language Processing},
month = {July},
address = {Uppsala, Sweden},
publisher = {Association for Computational Linguistics},
pages = {10--18},
url = {
http://www.aclweb.org/anthology/W10-2502},
year = 2010
}
DeNeefe et al. (2010)
